Encaustic
The word encaustic is
derived from the Greek word enkaustikos, which means "to process
with heat." The technique was popular in both ancient
First revivals
Attempts to revive the
encaustic technique were made by several Renaissance artists, including Leonardo
da Vinci, but none of these succeeded. Later, many artists of stature, including
Vincent van Gogh, experimented with wax mixed into their oil-painting mediums.
One of the few major artists of modern times to utilize the technique is Jasper
Johns, the American pop artist. Johns made many encaustic pictures, including a
representation of the American flag. More recently, encaustic has been
experiencing a revival, due in part to the sophistication of modern equipment—it
is easy to heat the wax using electric hot plates, and the availability of wax
sticks removes the need to mix pigments and wax. These new developments have
resulted in a growing awareness of the unique creative possibilities of
encaustic.
A unique medium
Encaustic is a unique medium
in many ways. In normal circumstances, encaustic work is very durable, and has a
relatively hard surface. It is impervious to atmospheric changes in dampness,
because it will not expand or shrink (although the support may). It will,
however, soften with heat, and the work can crack when cold. Encaustic work has
a slight sheen that can be buffed with a soft cloth. The surface can be damaged
by scuffing and abrasion, and so it requires careful treatment. Although the wax
material adheres to most surfaces, a rigid support is best with a lean
ground.
Tempera
Tempera is the word given to
the technique whereby pigment is prepared for painting, or "tempered," by mixing
with egg yolk and distilled water. As the mixture dries, the water evaporates,
leaving a thin, hard layer of color that is durable, but not very
flexible.
Until the discovery of oil
paint, all easel painting was done using tempera on wooden panels. As oil paint
gained popularity, tempera was relegated to use for underpainting—the works were
then glazed over in oil color. Because tempera needs to be applied to a solid
support, this practice gradually died out as canvas became the most popular
support.
A rewarding medium
Despite its lack of
flexibility, tempera work does have a solidity and depth that can seem lacking
in oil or acrylic works. This is due in part to the relatively transparent
nature of the medium itself, that enables layers to be built upon each other
without sacrificing the quality of the lower layers.
Terminology
Throughout this chapter,
when we speak about tempera, we are referring to the medium in its original
sense: that of pigment mixed with egg and distilled water. Be aware, however,
that some modern manufacturers—particularly those in mainland Europe and the
Oils
Oil paints as we know them
today have been around since the early Renaissance. Oil mediums had been
available in
Changing methods
Oil paint was traditionally
built up in a series of thin layers or glazes, with each new glaze consolidating
and modifying the last. Pigments needed to be ground and colors prepared, making
oil painting a slow process. When paint prepared by artists' colormen began to
become available, the process was simplified. The increased portability of the
new materials made it possible for work to be done on location. Brushwork became
more expressive, with painters taking a more direct approach. Artists began
producing work alia prima, an Italian phrase meaning "at the first," which
describes a painting that has been completed during a single sitting. Such works
are marked by a spontaneity and simplicity often lacking in multi-layered,
glazed works
Composition
Oil paint is made by mixing
pigment with an oil medium or vehicle. The purpose of the medium is to bind and
hold the pigment together to facilitate its workability, to secure it to the
support, and to act as a protective film when dry. All manufacturers prepare
their paint in this way. The constituency of the paint can vary slightly,
depending on the pigments and the amount of binder used. Paint can be used by
the artist straight from the tube, or it can be modified by the addition of oil
mediums and thinners. Recent advances in the modification of oil mediums have
resulted in the exciting new development of oil paint that can be mixed with
both oil and water—a boon to those who are allergic to or irritated by oil
solvents or thinners.
Using oil paints
Oil painting can be whatever
you want it to be—slow and considered, or quick and immediate. Time and
countless practitioners have left a substantial legacy of applications and
techniques. Paint can be applied thickly or thinly, quickly or slowly, and with
practically any implement at hand. If the results are not to your liking, the
entire work can be removed by scraping or wiping the paint away with knife or
rag, or simply overpainted when dry. Oil paints have been unfairly stigmatized
as a difficult medium; in fact, they are no more difficult than most other
media—and considerably more straightforward than some, due to the ease with
which corrections can be made.
Watercolor
The delicate and transparent
character of watercolor makes it unique amongst the media available to the
artist. In pure watercolor, no white paint is used. Thin, transparent washes of
color are painted onto a support that is usually white. As each wash of color
dries, further washes can be added, modifying and qualifying those previously
applied. A color is made lighter by the addition of more water, which thins the
mixture, making it more transparent. When painted onto a white support, the
increased transparency of the paint allows more light through. The light then
reflects off the support and through the wash, thus making the color appear
lighter.
Light to dark
Watercolor is very much a
technique-led medium. Colors are usually painted light to dark; that is, lighter
colors and tones are painted in first, followed by gradually darker and more
intense colors, with the darkest colors being painted last of all. One reason
for this order of application is that when a lighter wash is painted over a
darker wash, the effect is minimal, while a range of effects can be created by
applying a darker wash over a lighter one. Working light to dark also enables
the artist to work broadly, as darker washes can be used to cover any lighter
washed areas not needed in the final work.
A challenging material
The fluid nature of
watercolor has given it a reputation as a frustrating, challenging art material.
Washes continue to move and alter as they dry, adding an element of risk to any
work undertaken. This unpredictability is, however, also part of the medium's
attraction and charm. The best watercolor paintings have a sense of immediacy,
and seem to have been executed effortlessly. But a great deal of planning—the
positioning of highlights, for example— will have taken place before work has
started.
Composition
Watercolor paint is made
from finely ground, non-lead based pigments mixed with a binder, usually gum
arabic. A moisturizer such as glycerine, or sometimes honey, is added to prevent
the gum from becoming brittle, and acts as a plasticizer. A wetting agent is
also added, to encourage flow and absorption. A preservative like phenol or
sodium orthophenylphenate is added as well. In less expensive paint ranges, a
compound made from wheat starch known as dextrin may be mixed in, to improve the
paint's texture.
Gouache
An opaque, water-based
medium, gouache paint is made in much the same way as transparent watercolor,
but an inert white pigment is added, making the color dense and opaque. The
brilliance of gouache color comes not from the white support, but from the
reflective qualities of the added white pigment.
Many of the gouache
application techniques are very similar to—if not the same as—those of
watercolor, as are the equipment and supports used. Unlike watercolor, however,
lighter gouache colors can be painted over darker ones. As well, gouache can
easily be re-wet and re-manipulated after it has dried. This characteristic is,
however, a mixed blessing: it makes corrections and alterations remarkably
straightforward, but it also means that washes or layers of paint can disturb
and mix with previously painted areas. Gouache worked in layers thus requires a
direct and confident approach, to keep colors crisp and
clean.
Composition
Like watercolor, gouache is
made using pigment, binder, and preservatives. The pigment is coarser than that
used in watercolor, and larger amounts are used, creating an opaque effect. In
cheaper-quality gouache, an inert white pigment such as precipitated chalk or
blanc-fixe is used to impart opacity. Despite their opacity, gouache colors can
be used thinly, in transparent or semi-transparent washes. When used in this
way, they look similar to watercolor, but are slightly less
brilliant.
Acrylics
Until the early part of the
20th century, oil paint had always been seen as the primary material for
artistic expression. Over the years, countless practitioners contributed to
existing techniques, modifying and adapting them to suit their method and style
of working. After the advent of Impressionism, painting seemed to fragment,
splitting into several different schools and directions. All were searching for
a "new way," while using what was essentially an old
material.
In the 1940s and 1950s, the
new way finally materialized in the form of acrylic paints. Based on the tough
synthetic acrylic resins that were used in the manufacturing industry, this type
of paint had all of the advantages of the traditional media, with few of the
drawbacks. Permanent, flexible and water-resistant, acrylic paints do not
yellow, and show no signs of aging. Unlike oils, acrylics do not wrinkle, nor do
they become brittle or crack. Acrylics also dry faster than oils, hardening
quickly, while maintaining their flexibility and durability. Another advantage
of acrylics is that, unlike oils, all colors dry at the same
rate.
While some see the
fast-drying capability of acrylic paint as an advantage, others see it as an
undesirable characteristic. The rapid drying time means that it cannot be
manipulated for long periods of time, as oil paint can, and it dries out quickly
on the palette.
Composition
Acrylic paint is made by
dispersing ground pigment into an acrylic vehicle, or binder. The binder
consists of an emulsion of very fine resin particles suspended in water. The
binder coats the pigment particles and, once the water has evaporated, holds
them in place, creating a tough, yet flexible, permanent, water-resistant film
that is resistant to oxidization and chemical
decomposition.
Using acrylics
Acrylic paint can behave in
similar ways to watercolor and oil paint. Accordingly, techniques from both
disciplines can be used with acrylics. It is a mistake, however, to think of
acrylic paint as a poor man's oil or watercolor. In fact, the advantages of
acrylic paint as quick-drying, insoluble, and permanent when dry are only some
of its many attractions. Its capacity to mix well with other dry art materials,
the ease with which it takes on most surfaces, and its great adhesive qualities
make it the perfect painting medium for mixed media work. Acrylic paint is,
thus, an important medium in its own right. As such, it has developed its own
range of techniques.